Men’s and women’s time burdens – perceptions, impacts and pathways to alleviation

The FDGs were held separately in local languages with diverse groups of men and women to uncover if people in rural areas consider themselves time-constrained, the tasks that consume their time, the implications of the time constraints for their lives and understanding their needs regarding overcoming time burdens. The FDGs focused on technology and infrastructure to alleviate time burdens. The FGDS comprised an average of 12 participants with ages ranging from 23 to 68 years and an average age of 36. Most participants were married and had an average of five children.

The discussions began with the participants sharing their routine on an average day and the activities that consumed their daily time. They were asked if they felt time-burdened. Here, “time burden” was defined as not having sufficient time to perform tasks an individual would like to perform or not having time for leisure, rest and sleep. Moreover, the participants were asked what could alleviate their burdens.

Women’s time use
 

For most women, farming was most time-consuming on an average day. Almost all women mentioned weeding, planting, harvesting and excavating while narrating their routines. Agriculture takes significant time since the stony and barren soils of the region require large areas to be farmed. Traditional farming is practised, and farm-related activities are performed with basic, hand-held tools. The hilly terrain makes these activities more difficult. To supplement income, most women also work on other people's farms.

Figure 1: The 25 most frequently mentioned words in women’s FDGs

Another time-intensive task is firewood collection. Widespread deforestation contributes to the task’s time intensity, as women walk greater distances, frequently over hazardous terrain, for wood. Adding to the difficulty is the lack of all-weather roads or means of transportation. Gathering wood for fuel can take up to three hours daily and often requires several trips. Women also spend significant time fetching water, especially during the dry season. Many villages are isolated and lack direct access to fresh water sources, and women travel to far-off streams, spending up to two-and-a-half hours in the dry seasons.

Childcare and domestic work are almost exclusively undertaken by women. They perform various tasks simultaneously, interrupting farming to cook, and are accompanied by or carrying children while fetching wood and water. As primary caretakers, they seek medical services for household members travelling long distances. The impact of climate change and environmental degradation on women’s time burdens is noticeable. For example, frequent landslides damage farms, adding to their work burdens.

Men’s time use
 

Farming is the most time-consuming activity for men, too, who have to manage with uneven land parcels, hard soils and outdated tools. Men procure farming inputs. However, far-off input markets and a lack of roads make trips time-consuming. The men reported that long trips were necessary to obtain high-quality seeds for crops. Additionally, lacking funds to hire labour meant more time on the farm.

Figure 2:  The 25 most frequently mentioned words in men’s FGDs

Some men earn from riding motorcycle taxis (boda-bodas). The terrain, lack of roads or public transport and need to travel long distances for services create a demand for motorcycle taxis as people cannot afford cars or taxis. Travelling long distances on motorcycles, with heavy loads and rudimentary roads is time-consuming, especially during the rainy season. The riders must navigate steep and slippery terrain. Manufacturing work is another time-intensive job, with companies’ high output standards entailing long working hours.

Agriculture consumes most of women's and men’s daily time. Farmers are challenged by poor soil quality, lack of tools and technology, and dispersed landholdings, reflecting the structural issues in agriculture in these regions. Moreover, the almost complete absence of all-weather roads and unreliable public transport add to their time burdens.

Implications of time constraints
 

Women’s perspective

Women reported adverse impacts of time constraints such as on health and well-being due to little or no time for rest, sleep and relaxation. Time constraints take a toll on their interpersonal and intimate relationships. On the one hand, they cannot spend quality time with their partners and family, while on the other, they are blamed for not taking the time for this. Their partners often inflict violence on them for not doing so. Lack of time affects personal hygiene and hurts self-esteem. The women further stated that hygiene and appearance were important to women and domestic and farm work and not having time for their upkeep affected their perceived social status and caused shame. Women's time constraints limited their participation in income-generating activities. Farming allowed little time for other jobs, limiting their capacity to diversify income. Furthermore, the pressure of household chores resulted in arguments with spouses and, in some cases, physical abuse.

Women had a profound sense that parenting demands time. Inadequate attention has a detrimental impact on children’s behaviour and well-being, and they worry that children who experience neglect are susceptible to exploitation and abuse.

Men’s perspective

Most men had time for rest and social activities; almost none contributed to domestic or care work which is considered as women’s responsibility. Their low involvement in parenting impacts their family life and relationship with their children. For some men, economic compulsions are another important concern. Managing jobs and agricultural responsibilities puts them under time pressure, causing fatigue and decreased output.

Technologies, infrastructure, and services
 

Women’s perspective

To alleviate time constraints, improved farming tools, better roads, communication facilities (mobile networks) and accessible medical and banking services are needed. Affordable agricultural technologies tailored to the landscape are essential to the time efficiency of farming. Improved roads would allow for safer and faster travel. Women emphasise access to loans, since finance for agricultural and domestic technologies is almost impossible. This would also support small enterprises, hiring workers, and buying better tools. Women were interested in skills development for sustainable livelihoods such as training in improved farming practices and crafts.

Mobile phones reduce the need to travel to access information and can reduce time constraints. Technology and market access would open revenue sources and reduce time on unproductive activities. Access to healthcare services (community health centres) is important for women as primary caretakers of household members.

Men's perspective

Male farmers considered nearby agricultural input markets, which would save time. Improved tools would also increase productivity and reduce farming time. Moreover, irrigation technologies would help manage the water requirements for crops, particularly during the dry season. Men also noted access to capital for hiring workers and buying equipment. One suggestion was collective marketing; through collective marketing, they could sell their produce in larger quantities, and individual farmers would spend less time going to far-off markets. Furthermore, direct connections to bigger markets, such as those in Kampala, would remove middlemen, saving time and boosting margins. Men also realised that mobile phones were important for financial transactions and communication. And they noted the importance of organic farming methods, such as manure instead of chemical fertilisers.

Policy recommendations
 

The FGDs reveal significant time burdens faced by women because of their dual roles in agriculture and domestic responsibilities and absence of men’s support in care and domestic work. The lack of technologies, infrastructure and services exacerbates time constraints. Addressing these challenges requires interventions that consider women’s needs and their role as farmers and caregivers. Key recommendations to alleviate time burdens and enhance productivity are:

• Provide access to improved farming equipment that is affordable and suited to local landscapes (e.g. for hilly terrain).
• Introduce irrigation systems to support farming, especially during the dry season (the terrain demands novel irrigation systems).
• Expand mobile networks to enhance communication, facilitate financial transactions, and reduce travel time to access information.
• Support the adoption of organic farming, and ensure access to high-quality inputs (this includes skills and training on farming methods, development of agricultural input markets).
• Prioritise the construction of all-weather roads.
• Improve access to healthcare facilities to minimise the time for seeking medical services (e.g. expansion of community health centres).
• Support access to credit and financial resources, particularly for women.
• Encourage policies promoting collective marketing, allowing farmers to sell produce in bulk, access larger markets, and reduce time spent on individual transactions.
• Promote policies fostering organised livelihood groups to support women’s crafts and market access, diversifying their income sources.

Authors:

Sundus Saleemi. Senior Scientist, Leibniz Center for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF)/Germany. Contact: Sundus.saleemi@zalf.de  

Rosemary Emegu Isoto. Senior Lecturer, Department of Agribusiness and Natural Resource Economics (DANRE) at Makerere University/Uganda.

With support from research assistants, Nyirarukundo Marion, Arinda Johnny, Madoolo Geoffrey and Shimali Fred of Makerere University.

Acknowledgements

The study is part of the “Program of Accompanying Research for Agricultural Innovation” (PARI) funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). The authors thank Heike Baumüller and Joachim von Braun for their support. We are grateful to Purti Sadhwani and Khadeja Akter Konok.